The open research behind the book

The science of giving, with the receipts.

Hacked for Good rests on a body of published research, not on a feeling. This page lays that research out in the open, so you can check the argument for yourself and so anyone can cite the source rather than the slogan.

Every empirical claim in the book was checked against its original source. Of the claims examined, 62 were confirmed as written, 9 were corrected to match the literature, and 12 were softened or cut where no clean source could stand behind them. What follows is the confirmed core. Where the science is suggestive rather than settled, this page says so plainly.

Start here

The key claims, in one list

  1. Giving activates the brain's reward circuitry. When people give money away, the same reward centers that respond to receiving money light up. Harbaugh, Mayr and Burghart, Science, 2007.
  2. Spending on others raises happiness more reliably than spending on yourself. Dunn, Aknin and Norton, Science, 2008. A 2020 registered replication was mixed, so the book treats the effect as real but modest.
  3. Giving support to others is linked to living longer. Providing social support predicted reduced mortality even after controlling for receiving support. Brown, Nesse, Vinokur and Smith, Psychological Science, 2003.
  4. The "helper's high" is a named, decades-old observation. Coined to describe the physical and emotional lift people report after helping. Allan Luks with Peggy Payne, The Healing Power of Doing Good, 1991.
  5. Generosity is contagious across a social network, up to three degrees of separation. Fowler and Christakis, PNAS, 2010. The same study found that stinginess also spreads, and the three-degrees result has been debated.
  6. A new habit takes about 66 days to form on average, not 21. The real-world range ran from 18 to 254 days. Lally, van Jaarsveld, Potts and Wardle, European Journal of Social Psychology, 2010.
  7. Making a behavior easier is the most reliable way to make it happen. Behavior fires when motivation, ability and a prompt converge, and ability is the dependable lever. BJ Fogg, Stanford Behavior Design Lab; Tiny Habits, 2019.
  8. Every small action is a vote for the identity you are building. Habits stick when they become part of who you believe you are. James Clear, Atomic Habits, 2018; habit loop popularized by Charles Duhigg, The Power of Habit, 2012.
  9. The pull-to-refresh feed was engineered on the same principle as a slot machine. Variable-ratio reinforcement produces the highest, most persistent response rate. The designer of pull-to-refresh later voiced regret. Skinner, variable-ratio schedules; Loren Brichter, Tweetie, 2009.
  10. The machine that spreads outrage can spread good too. Awe is a powerful, positive driver of sharing, as strong a driver as anger. Berger and Milkman, Journal of Marketing Research, 2012. The evidence does not show positive content out-spreads outrage, so the book frames this as a bet, not a law.
The argument

Why giving pays the giver

The oldest objection to this book is that giving is supposed to cost you something. The research points the other way. Giving registers in the brain as a reward, not only as a sacrifice. When participants watched money move to a good cause, the reward regions of the brain responded much the way they do to receiving money for themselves. (Harbaugh, Mayr and Burghart, 2007.)

That internal payback shows up in how people feel and in how long they live. People who were given money and told to spend it on someone else reported greater happiness than those who spent it on themselves. (Dunn, Aknin and Norton, 2008.) Over a longer horizon, the act of providing support to others predicted lower mortality, even after the benefit of receiving support was accounted for. (Brown, Nesse, Vinokur and Smith, 2003.) None of this is new in spirit. The lift people feel after helping was named the helper's high more than thirty years ago. (Luks and Payne, 1991.)

A word on honesty. The brain chemistry of giving is often told as a tidy trio of dopamine, serotonin and oxytocin. The dopamine and bonding parts are well supported. The serotonin leg is the weakest, and the popular oxytocin numbers carry real replication concerns, so the book treats oxytocin as suggestive of trust and bonding rather than as a settled dose. The story holds without overstating any single molecule.

Eudaimonic versus hedonic well-being

Not all good feelings are the same. The feed is built around the hedonic kind, the quick spike that fades and leaves you reaching for the next one. Research on adaptation has long described this drift back toward a baseline, the reason a new high rarely stays high. (Brickman and Campbell, 1971; Brickman, Coates and Janoff-Bulman, 1978.) Giving works on the other channel, the deeper and steadier sense of a life spent well. The reward-circuit and well-being findings above point at that channel, the one the scroll cannot reach by design.

The mechanism

How the same machine can be turned around

The feed is not magic. It is behavior design. The pull-to-refresh gesture was built on variable-ratio reinforcement, the same schedule that makes a slot machine hard to walk away from, because that schedule produces the highest and most persistent rate of returning. The designer of pull-to-refresh, Loren Brichter, later said he regretted the downsides. (Brichter, Tweetie, 2009; Skinner, variable-ratio schedules.)

The same principles can be pointed at generosity. Behavior fires when motivation, ability and a prompt come together at once, and the reliable lever is ability. Make the good act easy enough and it happens at far lower motivation. (BJ Fogg, Stanford Behavior Design Lab; Tiny Habits, 2019.) Once it happens, the habit loop of cue, routine and reward can carry it, and a streak turns a single good deed into an identity. Every small action becomes a vote for the kind of person you are becoming. (Duhigg, 2012; Clear, 2018.) A realistic on-ramp matters here, because a new habit takes roughly 66 days to settle, not the mythical 21. (Lally and colleagues, 2010.)

How good spreads

Generosity does not stop with the giver. In a large social-network study, cooperative behavior cascaded outward to about three degrees of separation, so a single act could touch a friend of a friend of a friend. (Fowler and Christakis, 2010.) The same machinery that spreads outrage can spread the opposite. Awe, a positive emotion, is one of the strongest drivers of online sharing, on par with anger. (Berger and Milkman, 2012.)

The book is careful not to oversell this. The Fowler and Christakis study also found that stingy behavior cascades, and the three-degrees figure has been contested. Manufactured prosocial virality has a thin track record. So the claim that the machine will make popular whatever we choose is offered as a bet worth making, not as a law of nature.

The roots

Generosity is older than the science

Long before the studies, every major tradition built giving into its core. Zakat is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, set at roughly two and a half percent of qualifying wealth held for a lunar year above a threshold, with a root that means both to purify and to grow. Dana is generosity in Buddhist and Hindu practice, the first of the perfections. Ubuntu, from the Nguni languages of Southern Africa, holds that a person is a person through other people. Tzedakah ties giving to justice, and Maimonides mapped eight ascending levels of it. The Sikh langar has served free communal meals since the time of Guru Nanak around 1500. (Tradition and reference sources, cited in the book.)

The book opens with Mansa Musa, the ruler of Mali whose 1324 pilgrimage carried so much gold that his giving in Cairo pushed the gold price down for years, by historical accounts for more than a decade. He is often called the wealthiest person who ever lived, a claim historians treat as legend rather than ledger, since his fortune cannot truly be measured. He measured his own wealth by what he gave away. (al-Umari and later chroniclers; Britannica.)

The receipts

References

  1. Harbaugh WT, Mayr U, Burghart DR. Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science. 2007;316(5831):1622-1625. DOI:10.1126/science.1140738.
  2. Dunn EW, Aknin LB, Norton MI. Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science. 2008;319(5870):1687-1688.
  3. Brown SL, Nesse RM, Vinokur AD, Smith DM. Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving it: results from a prospective study of mortality. Psychological Science. 2003;14(4):320-327.
  4. Luks A, Payne P. The Healing Power of Doing Good. New York: Fawcett Columbine; 1991.
  5. Fowler JH, Christakis NA. Cooperative behavior cascades in human social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2010;107(12):5334-5338.
  6. Lally P, van Jaarsveld CHM, Potts HWW, Wardle J. How are habits formed: modelling habit formation in the real world. European Journal of Social Psychology. 2010;40(6):998-1009.
  7. Fogg BJ. Tiny Habits: The Small Changes That Change Everything. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2019. Stanford Behavior Design Lab, behaviormodel.org.
  8. Clear J. Atomic Habits. New York: Avery; 2018.
  9. Duhigg C. The Power of Habit. New York: Random House; 2012.
  10. Berger J, Milkman KL. What makes online content viral? Journal of Marketing Research. 2012;49(2):192-205.
  11. Brickman P, Coates D, Janoff-Bulman R. Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1978;36(8):917-927. (With Brickman and Campbell, 1971, on hedonic adaptation.)
  12. Kramer ADI, Guillory JE, Hancock JT. Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks. PNAS. 2014;111(24):8788-8790.
  13. Thaler RH, Sunstein CR. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New Haven: Yale University Press; 2008.
  14. al-Umari and later chroniclers on Mansa Musa's 1324 pilgrimage and the Cairo gold market; summarized in Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Musa I of Mali."

Open by design. This page exists because the argument should be checkable. If a claim here does not hold up against its source, the book would rather know. Where the literature is mixed or contested, that is noted in the text above rather than hidden. No source on this page was invented, and claims that lacked a clean source were left off it.